1. STUDENT GUIDE TO GOOD ESSAY WRITING

This Guide to Essay Writing is divided into six sections. Just click to go to the section in which you are interested:

1. Steps to Planning and Writing a successful History Essay

2. How to say it in formal writing

3. What should it look like?

• Presentation

• Harvard
• Footnotes
• Plagiarism

               
 
6. Serious Stuff:

• Deadlines; Extensions; Penalties; Cover Sheets; Delivering Your Essay; Late Essays; If you get sick
• Academic Misconduct and Plagiarism
• Equal Opportunity in Education

8. What to do if you fail or are unhappy with a mark.

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ESSAYS - Why do we use them in assessment?

• We set essays because we want to help you improve your writing skills and your ability to think creatively, systematically and analytically. These skills are tested in the CST papers at the end of year 12 and are considered essential to all academic subject areas including the Maths, Science, English, Business and all practical areas of study.
• Writing essays is difficult if you do not have a strategy. The word 'essay', when used as a verb, means to try or to attempt. To produce a good essays requires considerable effort and careful organisation of time and ideas. Inspiration is only a small part of the process, so  essays / assignments written the night before they are due may be spontaneous, but are unlikely to be thoughtful or thought provoking. Given that you have to show evidence of research in the inquiry process, the best copied, plagiarized or late night effort can not gain you much credit.
• In an essay you are expected to present a well-constructed and clearly expressed argument based on evidence.
• Remember that teachers are available to discuss any difficulties you may have. Consultation with teachers should be an ongoing process and not something that happens a few days before an assignment is due. Last minute efforts fail to impress.

Steps to Planning and Writing a Successful History Essay

Example  A - There are two broad types of essay responses you could be asked develop in the social sciences.

1. You may be asked to develop your own focus of inquiry within a general area of study like - modern China or racism in Australia.

1. You may be asked to develop your own response to a given question like - What were the most significant factors contributing to the Communist victory in China? or What factors made the most significant contribution to the development of an Australian identity.

1. Establish what you are being asked to do.

You need to read the question carefully to determine what you are being asked, and what responses you can make - supporting, rejecting or offering qualified (dis)agreement. As your skills develop you may be asked to develop an original hypothesis as a respond to a particular problem. You will almost certainly be required to argue a point of view, or give evidence to support a conclusion.

2. Read to gain a overview of the topic and then select a focus within that topic to investigate.

If you have a text book or set of class notes, use these first. You need a broad overview of the topic before you specialise on one aspect of the topic. Try and find some primary source material on the topic and analyse it in terms of Who? What ? When? Where ? and Why? Read primary sources carefully, several times. Identify an area you would like to investigate.

3. How to Formulate your own position and muster your evidence.

After some general reading you should find out what historians have thought about the topic. This can be a help but it should never be a substitute for your own thoughts. Formulate your own ideas as you read information. Your ideas / hypothesis will change as you read more about the topic. Do not simply copy the conclusions that other people have reached with out critically evaluating the information for yourself. In an essay you are really being asked to prove that the conclusions you have reached are valid. You are being asked for your point of view, your analysis of the topic.

4. Notes should be organised under the focus questions

Once you understand what the question asks you to do, or once you have established your topic of investigation, you will need to ask yourself the basic question - What do I need to know to be able to answer the question or find a solution to the problem. You need to list sub-questions to the focus question. Examples are given in the sample plan for China. Each sub-question should be written at the top of a single page and all relevant information will be organised and referenced under that heading. These sub-question will help you organise your information into paragraphs at a later stage.

The evidence you have gathered may suggest that you need to change the first answer or position on an issue. To change your answer is considered to be GOOD. It shows that you have developed a better understanding of the topic after investigation. It makes sense to assume that you can improve on your first answer because you didn't know very much about the topic when you started. Examples are shown in the unit on China.

6. The basic essay structure:

While making notes remember that all you have to do in the essay is organise relevant evidence to support a conclusion you have reached. Keep in mind that:

• the purpose of the Introduction is to state the position you will be taking and to list the areas you will be investigating to support your conclusions;
• the purpose of the Body of the essay is to present the evidence that supports each point listed in the introduction of your essay, and to deal with any evidence to the contrary;
• in writing the Conclusion of the essay it is usual to summarise the evidence presented and to restate your argument, confident that you have now provided adequate evidence to justify your position. Good essays make a brief reference to the valuable lessons to be learnt from the topic or how the past relates to the present / future.This is your chance to place the specific topic into the "big picture" - show its relevance to the world we live in.

7. Write a first draft

Writing drafts of essays helps you to organise your material and clarify your expression. In organising your material you may find it helpful to try and organise each sub-question into a paragraph. Sometimes it is easier to join a number of sub-questions together to form a paragraph. Some of your sub-questions may prove to be of little use - leave them out -  do not waste time on them. You can arrange and rearrange the draft paragraphs on sheets of paper until you achieve a logical progression to your argument. A computer makes this process much easier.

8. Redraft, edit and polish your essay

This is essential. When you read over your draft after a few days you will almost certainly find that it is not as clear or coherent as you remember. What you thought you had said may not necessarily be there on the paper. After a few days, you should be sufficiently distant from that first draft to criticise your own work.

9. Submit your essay

Make sure it is on time and follows the guidelines on presentation, formal writing, foototes/ referencing, bibliography and academic standards set. Always read the criteria sheets carefully.

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Example B -

Here is a specific example of a plan for any essay / assignment from the senior modern history unit on China.

An example of the inquiry process using China as a topic area under investigation

1. Establish what you are being asked to do. What does the question require you to do?

2. Read to gain an overview of the topic and select a focus to investigate

Read the chapter on China from your text book and class notes. You need a broad overview of what happened in China before you can even think about picking a specialist area. After general reading you can identify an area you would like to investigate or try to come up with an answer to the question if one is set.

3. Select one of these areas or identify an issue or problem of your own to investigate.
You may state a tentative hypothesis at this stage but you should expect to change it as you learn more about the topic.

You would never be expected to deal with every issue or topic in a unit of work.

Here are some examples of areas you could investigate:

Why was the Manchu dynasty unwilling or unable to reform China ?
How did western trade treaties contribute to the development of nationalism ?
Why did rivalry develop between the GMD and the CCP ?
What has been the impact of Communist rule on China ?
Why were the communists able to gain control of China ?

Let us assume that you chose to look at the following topic as the basis for your inquiry.

The causes and effects of Mao's communist victory in 1949

This is a starting point only - it is not an hypothesis . You will need to do a lot more reading before you can offer a meaningful explanation for this topic. You could make up an hypothesis at this stage and change it as you find more information or research your sub-questions and then offer an hypothesis.
Let us assume that your first attempt at answering this question

This is where you need to ask the basic questions - What do I need to know to be able to answer the question or find a solution to the problem. You need to list sub-questions to the focus question. Each sub-question should be written at the top of a single page and all relevant information will be organised and referenced under that heading. These sub-question will help you organise your information into paragraphs at a later stage. Examples of sub-questions
 

• Which groups were trying to gain control of china?
• What were the strengths and weaknesses of these groups?
• How effective were their leaders, methods ?
• What did they promise to do ?
• How popular were they?
• How were their supporters and opposition treated after victory?
• Did the country advance economically, democratically, socially?

4. Notes should be organised under the focus questions The sub-question will help you organise your information into paragraphs at a later stage. These steps are your strategy or plan of attack and constitute the most important stage of the process of inquiry. Everything that follows will rest upon the foundation laid in this early stage of investigation.

To assist you in the task you must consult a wide variety of sources. Once this is done you can write an hypothesis that is based on knowledge and understanding of the topic. As you analyse and  evaluate the information you will be able to improve your hypothesis. You may change some of your sub-questions, add new ones or ignore some of the original ones you selected.

Always record the full details of the sources as you use them for the bibliography and quotes.

5.  Evaluate your original answer or hypothesis

Here is an example of an Hypothesis

"The death of the Sun in 1925 destroyed the GMD's chances of offering a stable and strong government to the Chinese people and this significantly contributed to the ultimate communist victory."

Here are some Sub-questions that could help you investigate this hypothesis:

What special qualities did Sun have to offer the nationalist leadership ?
What happened in the nationalist government after his death ?
What factors weakened the nationalists after Sun's death ?

Example 2 Hypothesis -

"The communists reaction to the Japanese invasion helped them gain the support of the peasants and this was essential for their ultimate victory over the nationalists."

Sub-questions:

How did the GMD and the CCP react to the Japanese invasion ?
What strategies did the GDM and CCP use against the Japanese ?
What policies and goals did the GMD and the CCP offer the masses ?

NOTE : You can not even attempt this stage unless you have done some general reading and have a broad understanding of the topic. You can not make up a meaningful hypothesis or sub-questions unless you have gained an insight and hopefully some empathy with the period in question .

NOTE : Your hypothesis should have a cause - effect relationship.
Factors A and B caused C. or
Factors A and B led to C which was significant in event D.

NOTE : The simple nature of the sub-questions are - Who, What, When, Where, Why . These sub- questions will change as you learn more about the topic.

You should feel free to change your hypothesis as your knowledge and understanding develops on the topic. Modification and change to the hypothesis and focus questions are the natural outcomes of the inquiry process. For example you may have found convincing evidence that it was the brutal treatment of the nationalists on the Chinese peasants and the communists that lead to the masses supporting Mao's movement . This may cause you to change your original hypothesis.

Example 2 above may be changed to a new hypothesis -

"The nationalists inability to drive out the Japanese and their attacks on the communist freedom fighters helped the communists gain the support of the peasants and this was essential for their ultimate victory over the nationalists."

This may be later changed to a different hypothesis -

"Mao's ability to gain the support of the peasants was the most decisive factor in the communist victory."

Gather evidence to support your case. This evidence could force you to change your inquiry as discussed earlier . You should not set out to rigidly prove the first hypothesis that you thought of a few weeks ago .

The Board of Senior Secondary School Studies requires students to show evidence of the research and the inquiry process. You will need to show evidence of the basic skills and processes that you have developed since primary school.

• skimming and scanning for relevant information
• locating information to use as evidence - direct and indirect quotes, diagrams, graphs, cartoons
• making notes using a variety of summary techniques - recording the sources details
• compiling a bibliography

Many students will find something to change or modify in their hypothesis right up until the final draft is ready to be
handed in.

6. The basic essay structure:

While making notes remember that all you have to do in the essay is organise relevant evidence to support a conclusion you have reached. Keep in mind that:

• the purpose of the Introduction is to state the position you will be taking and to list the areas you will be investigating to support your conclusions;
• the purpose of the Body of the essay is to present the evidence that supports each point listed in the introduction of your essay, and to deal with any evidence to the contrary;
• in writing the Conclusion of the essay it is usual to summarise the evidence presented and to restate your argument, confident that you have now provided adequate evidence to justify your position. Good essays make a brief reference to the valuable lessons to be learnt from the topic or how the past relates to the present / future.This is your chance to place the specific topic into the "big picture" - show its relevance to the world we live in.

7. Write a first draft

8. Redraft, edit and polish your essay

This is essential. When you read over your draft after a few days you will almost certainly find that it is not as clear or coherent as you remember. What you thought you had said may not necessarily be there on the paper. After a few days, you should be sufficiently distant from that first draft to criticise your own work.

9. Submit your essay

Complete a final draft.

You must evaluate you draft in terms of bias, omissions and exaggerations. You must question the quality of your sources in terms of their reliability, relevance and representativeness. This process has the potential to set the quality of your final draft apart from others in Queensland doing the same course . It is not easy to evaluate your own work . Why not discuss it with another student . Your best friends may be brutally honest with you and could give you valuable advice. Ultimately you must decide the quality of their advice - some advice may be best ignored - but some value may come of it.
 
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2. How to say it in formal writing

Expression

Try to be direct, clear and interesting. Simple words and constructions and short sentences are often best, but variety does prevent boredom. It is important to integrate quotations into the fabric of your argument. Use appropriate conjunctions and punctuation. You should always quote accurately, but for the purpose of integrating quotations you may make minor changes (you may change a pronoun, for example) as long as you enclose all such changes in square brackets.

Avoid writing the way you talk! (e.g. I think the commies wone the war because they were the best of a pretty rotten bunch).

Written language differs from spoken language in terms of:

• vocabulary: avoid the use of slang, abbreviations, childish or heavily attitudinal words.
• logic: do not present all statements as if they are  your own opinion ('I think that....').
• sentence structure: sentences should not be long chains of clauses linked by because or and. Use full stops liberally!
• conjunctions: make use of the written language tools offered by words like 'First,...second...' 'on the other hand'.... 'In conclusion' which help the reader (& writer!) to follow the logical organisation of the material.
• substance: avoid sharing truisms or inanities with your reader (e.g. literature is really important)

Many students have difficulties in the following area, so we ask you to take special care with:

• Sentence construction. Make sure that the subject of the clause or sentence is clear, and that each sentence has a finite verb. If these terms mean nothing to you, now's your chance to find out--your tutor's there to be asked!
• Punctuation. Punctuation is used to mark off elements of meaning and designate their respective values. Be scrupulous with apostrophes.
• The use of the apostrophe. Please remember: it's = it is; its = possessive (ownership)
• Spelling. Develop the habit of consulting a good dictionary for both spellings and meanings of words; use Australian rather than American spelling. Most word processing programs have spell-checkers--use them!
• Cliches. Avoid cliches and colloquialisms - such words and phrases have been devalued.

3. What it should look like

Presentation

• It is strongly recommended that you type or word process your essay.
• Essays should be typed or printed on one side of the paper only, with a wide margin (at least 5 cm) on the left-hand side of each page for the marker's comments.
• If you must handwrite your work, you are strongly advised to write only on every SECOND line of the page, to give your marker room for comments.
• If you word process your work, make sure you print with 1.5 or 2 line spacing.
• Number the pages, and fasten them securely.
• Attach the cover sheet.

• Use inverted commas to indicate any quotations up to three lines in length.
• It should be clear from the remarks in the previous sections that essays must be your own work , that is, they must be written in your own words, presenting your own analysis and arguments. When you use a quotation, use it to reinforce your essay - not to save you from writing it! A 'scissors and paste' collection of quotations connected in a cursory fashion is not acceptable. Only use quotes if they are directly relevant and fit appropriately into your line of argument.
• All direct quotations must be accurately reproduced, that is, follow the original exactly. If quotations are short (ie, three lines or less) they can be incorporated into your text, enclosed in quotation marks. For example: The President of the Miners' Federation stated, 'The rejection of our claim for annual leave shows the employers' bias in the arbitration process'. He then called for mass pit-head meetings.
• Quotations longer than three lines should be indented (that is, have an increased margin, in the manner show here) and single spaced (the rest of the text being double spaced). Indented quotations do not need quotation marks.
• If you are quoting someone else's quotation, your footnote reference should begin with "Cited in ... " and indicate your secondary source. Do not cite as your source an original document unless you actually read that document.
• Longer quoted passages should be indicated by indenting them, without inverted commas.

How to reference quotes   -The Harvard System

The Footnoting System

A ‘superscript’ or ‘superior number’, which is a number raised above the line of the text, is placed alongside information - such as a quotation - whose source is to be acknowledged, and a ‘reference footnote’ with the same number is placed at the foot of the page (or possibly at the end of an assignment, journal article, or section of a book such as a chapter). For example, the third reference footnote in an assignment could relate to a quotation from page 61 of a book by A G L Shaw:

³A.G.L. Shaw, The Story of Australia (London: Faber, 1955), p.61.

To obtain further information on the footnoting system, including explanations of the use of Latin terms such as ibid, and op.cit., you should consult appropriate works such as some of those listed in the Annotated Bibliography at the end of this booklet. (See also Appendix C and Appendix F.)
 
 

The Harvard System

This system first became popular with writers of scientific papers, but it is now also in common use in such fields as Education, Psychology and Sociology.

Reference footnotes are dispensed with and referencing is incorporated into the main text.

 Reference to sources is made at an appropriate place in the text by station: surname(s) of author(s); year of publication; and page number(s) are always placed within brackets, but the surname(s) may be outside brackets. If there is no known author, a title must be made instead of surname(s). See Example 5 following. Note, however, that it is a common mistake to think that there is no author when a work actually has a ‘corporate author’. When there is a corporate author, its name is used in the text in the same way that an author’s surname is used. (See Example 6 following.)

Quotations and paraphrasing are often introduced in the present tense (eg ‘states that’), but the past tense (eg ‘stated that’ or ‘has stated that’) may be used. Consistency is desirable within a particular paper. Sometimes, however, the past tense is more appropriate even if the present tense has been used elsewhere in the paper. See Example 4 following. Either single or double quotation marks may be used when quoting another person’s words. Again, consistency is desirable. But if you quote words which themselves include quotation marks it is better to use the two kinds. (See Example 7 following.)

Examples^*:

 (1) Simpson (1967:27) states that ‘lack of exercise is our most serious health problem’. (Quoting from one page.)

 (2) It has been claimed that there is a great revival of interest in religion (Reid, 1976:54-55). (Paraphrasing from two pages.)

(3) Rogers and Phillips (1978) have made a strong plea for the outlawing of nuclear weapons. (Reference to arguments advanced in a whole work, so no page numbers used.)

(4) More than two decades ago Shaw (1955:272) wrote that Australian book sales per head were the highest in the world (‘wrote’ is more appropriate that ‘writes’).

(5) It is stated in Wild Life of Australia (1972:9) that ‘Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world’. (Quoting from an anonymous work.)

(6) The Australian Conservation Foundation (1970:2) claims that the ‘raging dry-season bushfire is easily the most dramatic feature of the Australian Scene’. (Quoting words of a corporate author.)

(7) Referring to an argumentative relation, Baldwin (1973:18) remarks: ‘If you said "white" to him he would almost certainly say "black".’ (Double quotation marks used within single ones.)

This referencing obviously does not by itself give the reader complete information about sources. This information can be obtained only by relating the referencing to a bibliography, which is consequently a necessary accompaniment to Harvard referencing. Compilation of bibliographies is discussed below.

To illustrate the Harvard system further, two examples from the earlier-mentioned book by A.G.L. Shaw follow. These examples illustrate the difference between the setting out of ‘short’ and ‘long’ quotations. What is ‘short’ and ‘long’ is arbitrary. The most common practice is to consider quotations of four complete lines or more as ‘long’.

A short quotation is incorporated into a sentence without disrupting the flow of the text, and quotations marks are used.

Example:

 Example:

Shaw, A.G.L. (1955). The Story of Australia. London: Faber.

The following two special problems occur occasionally when using the Harvard system:

Bibliography

1. Place the bibliography on a separate sheet at the end of the essay.

2. It should include all books and articles consulted whether actual quotations are taken from them or not.

3. Never include any book not used.

4. 'Primary' sources (eg, documents) should be listed separately from 'secondary' sources (e.g. books and articles).

5. Within these categories a strict alphabetical arrangement according to the surnames of the authors should be used.

Some examples

The method of writing a bibliography is slightly different to footnoting. Please pay careful attention to punctuation.

(i) Books

Shaw, A. G. L., Convicts and the Colonies. London: Faber, 1966.

(ii) Journal Articles

Carroll, L., 'Carnival Rites as Vehicles of Protest in Renaissance Venice', The Sixteenth Century Journal, 16 (1985), pp. 486-503.

(iii) Chapters from Books

Parrington, V. L., 'Andrew Jackson, Agrarian Liberal', in J. L. Bugg (ed). Jacksonian Democracy,Myth or Reality, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964, pp. 34-38.

(iv) Theses

Madew, A. S., Agriculture in the Hunter Valley, 1830-1850, MA thesis, University of Sydney, 196.

(v) Official Documents

New South Wales Parliamentary Debates. First series, vol. XXXI. Sydney: W. & F. Pascoe, 1892

(vi) Manuscripts

Parkes Correspondence, Mitchell Library, A907

(vii) Newspapers

Sydney Morning Herald

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4. Serious Stuff

Deadlines

Assignments must be submitted by the due date.

Extensions

Extensions will be granted only in special circumstances and at the discretion of the teacher, Head of Department or Deputy Principal  but must be obtained before the due date. Except in cases of unforeseen sickness and misadventure requests for extensions should be accompanied by documentation such as a medical certificate or a letter from your parent / guardian.

Penalties
Assignments submitted late without an approved extension will be penalised. The standard proceedure is for the assessment item to be marked as usual BUT awarded E's in all criteria for the student profile when determining exit levels of achievement.

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Cover Sheet and Copy

Follow teacher's instructions. You will usually be expected to attach the criteria sheet, title page and contents page to the assignment.

Delivering Your Essay

YOU are responsible for handing in your assignment. Do not leave your essay on a teacher's desk. Give it to a member of staff or ask someone else to deliver it for you.

Late Essays

Remember that the penalty for lateness is likely to outweigh any additional marks gained for work done in the future.

Even if you do not receive any marks for your assignment, you must still submit it in order to complete the subject and be eligible for a result.

Prolonged Illness

If you suffer from a prolonged illness or other disability which prevents you from submitting one or more assignments, you should write as soon as possible to the Head of the Department and provide supporting documentation.

Academic Misconduct

The handing in of assignments with very similar answers to others (past or present), or of plagiarised work, will result in severe penalties.

Plagiarism is one form of academic misconduct. This consists of appropriating the words and ideas of someone else, and presenting them as your own. It is intellectual theft. It can take many forms, ranging from reproducing published material without acknowledgment and documentation, to submitting an essay written by someone else as your own work. Generally, we do know when we are indulging in some form of deceit such as this, but there may be cases when, because your own thoughts coincide closely with those of someone else, you are unsure of where you stand on the matter. In such circumstances, discuss the dilemma with a member of staff. Students should note, in any event, that plagiarism is regarded very seriously as a violation of the objectives of  all levels of education. At university you could be excluded from a course of study for plagiarism.

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Assessment

Students are required to attend lessons offered in the subject, to submit assignments and to sit for any class test and/or examination which may be prescribed as part of the assessment for a given subject.

You must attend classes regularly, and you must complete all written work (even if it is submitted to the Department too late to qualify for a mark).

Failure to fulfil any of these requirements may lead to the withholding of a student's results, and/or failure in the subject.

Equal Opportunity in Education

This school does not discriminate against students on the grounds of sex, marital status, pregnancy, race, nationality, national or ethnic origin, colour, disability or religion. Further, this school is committed to course/subject design, curriculum content, classroom environment, assessment procedures and other aspects of school life which will provide equality of educational opportunity to all students. If you feel disadvantaged in ways that you think fall within the scope of the Equal Opportunity in Education Policy, you should approach the Head of Department.
 

5. What do the marks mean?

Marking Criteria

Essays are used to measure ability in the selection, intepretation and evaluation of ideas. They allow a freedom of response but in general they are marked according to the following criteria:-

Knowledge and Understanding: Showing awareness of a wide range of data, from specific facts to theories about the facts. Breadth of reading, its relevance and coherence, and the understanding of key terms, facts and concepts will be looked for.

Critical Use of Sources: This requires an ability to understand the component parts of an argument and to critically examine it. You will need to evaluate the relevance of data, recognise unstated assumptions and logical fallacies in reasoning, and consider whether appropriate weighting has been given to various parts of the evidence.

Communication: Essays involve the construction of an argument which is consistent and based on a variety of sources. Apart from the usual language skills (clarity, correctness) you will be expected to write critically and according to a logical plan.

The essay itself then is a combination of these three skills. Have you answered the question logically and consistently, and supported it with adequate information?

Skills we hope our students acquire:

• 'precision of thought and language' and 'developing writing skills'
• History students should carry forward with them: the ability to work both independently and in a group to solve problems, the application of analytical modes of thinking (which incorporates critical reading of texts, interpretation of primary and secondary evidence and a reflective awareness of one's own assumptions), the ability to communicate these ideas in both written and oral form, and the use of the historical imagination.

• a) Critically read secondary literature (especially monographs and articles)
• b) Interpret a historical source (distinguish primary and secondary sources; work with primary source)
• c) Establish consistent, organized writing skills (how to plan an essay; sequencing an argument; technical referencing convenctions)
• d) Participate in oral discussions (sharing of information; how to pose an argument orally)
• e) Master elementary computer skills (use of computerized data bases)

• a) Critically read secondary literature (comprehensive histories, historiographical debates)
• b) Interpret a great range of primary and secondary sources
• c) Discuss theoretical issues behind history as a discourse (questioning of own assumptions; representational nature of history)
• d) Analyse historical problems and be aware of the contexts in which historical problems are analysed (broadening knowledge of structures, cause/effect variables)
• e) Master writing skills (good argument structure; clear expression)
• f) Master oral skills (identifying issues; debating points)
• g) Master computer skills (use of networking)

h) Make use of historical imagination (pursue own lines of enquiry; flair in writing, use of metaphor, counterfactual questioning)

The Uses of History

A Why Study History Through Primary Sources

B How to read a Primary Source

C Using Primary Sources

D Thucydides - On Inventing Speeches

E The Need for Source Criticism - Alexander to Aristotle
 

The Uses of History

A A Sense of History - Some Components

B.The 10 Commandments of Writing Historical Essays

C The Discoursew of History

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ESSAYS - Why do we use them in assessment?

• We set essays because we want to help you improve your writing skills and your ability to think creatively, systematically and analytically. These skills are tested in the CST papers at the end of year 12 and are considered essential to all academic subject areas including the Maths, Science, English, Business and all practical areas of study.
• Writing essays is difficult if you do not have a strategy. The word 'essay', when used as a verb, means to try or to attempt. To produce a good essays requires considerable effort and careful organisation of time and ideas. Inspiration is only a small part of the process, so  essays / assignments written the night before they are due may be spontaneous, but are unlikely to be thoughtful or thought provoking. Given that you have to show evidence of research in the inquiry process, the best copied, plagiarized or late night effort can not gain you much credit.
• In an essay you are expected to present a well-constructed and clearly expressed argument based on evidence.
• Remember that teachers are available to discuss any difficulties you may have. Consultation with teachers should be an ongoing process and not something that happens a few days before an assignment is due. Last minute efforts fail to impress.

Steps to Planning and Writing a Successful History Essay

Example  A - There are two broad types of essay responses you could be asked develop in the social sciences.

1. You may be asked to develop your own focus of inquiry within a general area of study like - modern China or racism in Australia.

1. You may be asked to develop your own response to a given question like - What were the most significant factors contributing to the Communist victory in China? or What factors made the most significant contribution to the development of an Australian identity.

1. Establish what you are being asked to do.

You need to read the question carefully to determine what you are being asked, and what responses you can make - supporting, rejecting or offering qualified (dis)agreement. As your skills develop you may be asked to develop an original hypothesis as a respond to a particular problem. You will almost certainly be required to argue a point of view, or give evidence to support a conclusion.

2. Read to gain a overview of the topic and then select a focus within that topic to investigate.

If you have a text book or set of class notes, use these first. You need a broad overview of the topic before you specialise on one aspect of the topic. Try and find some primary source material on the topic and analyse it in terms of Who? What ? When? Where ? and Why? Read primary sources carefully, several times. Identify an area you would like to investigate.

3. How to Formulate your own position and muster your evidence.

After some general reading you should find out what historians have thought about the topic. This can be a help but it should never be a substitute for your own thoughts. Formulate your own ideas as you read information. Your ideas / hypothesis will change as you read more about the topic. Do not simply copy the conclusions that other people have reached with out critically evaluating the information for yourself. In an essay you are really being asked to prove that the conclusions you have reached are valid. You are being asked for your point of view, your analysis of the topic.

4. Notes should be organised under the focus questions

Once you understand what the question asks you to do, or once you have established your topic of investigation, you will need to ask yourself the basic question - What do I need to know to be able to answer the question or find a solution to the problem. You need to list sub-questions to the focus question. Examples are given in the sample plan for China. Each sub-question should be written at the top of a single page and all relevant information will be organised and referenced under that heading. These sub-question will help you organise your information into paragraphs at a later stage.

The evidence you have gathered may suggest that you need to change the first answer or position on an issue. To change your answer is considered to be GOOD. It shows that you have developed a better understanding of the topic after investigation. It makes sense to assume that you can improve on your first answer because you didn't know very much about the topic when you started. Examples are shown in the unit on China.

6. The basic essay structure:

While making notes remember that all you have to do in the essay is organise relevant evidence to support a conclusion you have reached. Keep in mind that:

• the purpose of the Introduction is to state the position you will be taking and to list the areas you will be investigating to support your conclusions;
• the purpose of the Body of the essay is to present the evidence that supports each point listed in the introduction of your essay, and to deal with any evidence to the contrary;
• in writing the Conclusion of the essay it is usual to summarise the evidence presented and to restate your argument, confident that you have now provided adequate evidence to justify your position. Good essays make a brief reference to the valuable lessons to be learnt from the topic or how the past relates to the present / future.This is your chance to place the specific topic into the "big picture" - show its relevance to the world we live in.

7. Write a first draft

Writing drafts of essays helps you to organise your material and clarify your expression. In organising your material you may find it helpful to try and organise each sub-question into a paragraph. Sometimes it is easier to join a number of sub-questions together to form a paragraph. Some of your sub-questions may prove to be of little use - leave them out -  do not waste time on them. You can arrange and rearrange the draft paragraphs on sheets of paper until you achieve a logical progression to your argument. A computer makes this process much easier.

8. Redraft, edit and polish your essay

This is essential. When you read over your draft after a few days you will almost certainly find that it is not as clear or coherent as you remember. What you thought you had said may not necessarily be there on the paper. After a few days, you should be sufficiently distant from that first draft to criticise your own work.

9. Submit your essay

Make sure it is on time and follows the guidelines on presentation, formal writing, foototes/ referencing, bibliography and academic standards set. Always read the criteria sheets carefully.

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Example B -

Here is a specific example of a plan for any essay / assignment from the senior modern history unit on China.

An example of the inquiry process using China as a topic area under investigation

1. Establish what you are being asked to do. What does the question require you to do?

2. Read to gain an overview of the topic and select a focus to investigate

Read the chapter on China from your text book and class notes. You need a broad overview of what happened in China before you can even think about picking a specialist area. After general reading you can identify an area you would like to investigate or try to come up with an answer to the question if one is set.

3. Select one of these areas or identify an issue or problem of your own to investigate.
You may state a tentative hypothesis at this stage but you should expect to change it as you learn more about the topic.

You would never be expected to deal with every issue or topic in a unit of work.

Here are some examples of areas you could investigate:

Why was the Manchu dynasty unwilling or unable to reform China ?
How did western trade treaties contribute to the development of nationalism ?
Why did rivalry develop between the GMD and the CCP ?
What has been the impact of Communist rule on China ?
Why were the communists able to gain control of China ?

Let us assume that you chose to look at the following topic as the basis for your inquiry.

The causes and effects of Mao's communist victory in 1949

This is a starting point only - it is not an hypothesis . You will need to do a lot more reading before you can offer a meaningful explanation for this topic. You could make up an hypothesis at this stage and change it as you find more information or research your sub-questions and then offer an hypothesis.
Let us assume that your first attempt at answering this question

This is where you need to ask the basic questions - What do I need to know to be able to answer the question or find a solution to the problem. You need to list sub-questions to the focus question. Each sub-question should be written at the top of a single page and all relevant information will be organised and referenced under that heading. These sub-question will help you organise your information into paragraphs at a later stage. Examples of sub-questions
 

• Which groups were trying to gain control of china?
• What were the strengths and weaknesses of these groups?
• How effective were their leaders, methods ?
• What did they promise to do ?
• How popular were they?
• How were their supporters and opposition treated after victory?
• Did the country advance economically, democratically, socially?

4. Notes should be organised under the focus questions The sub-question will help you organise your information into paragraphs at a later stage. These steps are your strategy or plan of attack and constitute the most important stage of the process of inquiry. Everything that follows will rest upon the foundation laid in this early stage of investigation.

To assist you in the task you must consult a wide variety of sources. Once this is done you can write an hypothesis that is based on knowledge and understanding of the topic. As you analyse and  evaluate the information you will be able to improve your hypothesis. You may change some of your sub-questions, add new ones or ignore some of the original ones you selected.

Always record the full details of the sources as you use them for the bibliography and quotes.

5.  Evaluate your original answer or hypothesis

Here is an example of an Hypothesis

"The death of the Sun in 1925 destroyed the GMD's chances of offering a stable and strong government to the Chinese people and this significantly contributed to the ultimate communist victory."

Here are some Sub-questions that could help you investigate this hypothesis:

What special qualities did Sun have to offer the nationalist leadership ?
What happened in the nationalist government after his death ?
What factors weakened the nationalists after Sun's death ?

Example 2 Hypothesis -

"The communists reaction to the Japanese invasion helped them gain the support of the peasants and this was essential for their ultimate victory over the nationalists."

Sub-questions:

How did the GMD and the CCP react to the Japanese invasion ?
What strategies did the GDM and CCP use against the Japanese ?
What policies and goals did the GMD and the CCP offer the masses ?

NOTE : You can not even attempt this stage unless you have done some general reading and have a broad understanding of the topic. You can not make up a meaningful hypothesis or sub-questions unless you have gained an insight and hopefully some empathy with the period in question .

NOTE : Your hypothesis should have a cause - effect relationship.
Factors A and B caused C. or
Factors A and B led to C which was significant in event D.

NOTE : The simple nature of the sub-questions are - Who, What, When, Where, Why . These sub- questions will change as you learn more about the topic.

You should feel free to change your hypothesis as your knowledge and understanding develops on the topic. Modification and change to the hypothesis and focus questions are the natural outcomes of the inquiry process. For example you may have found convincing evidence that it was the brutal treatment of the nationalists on the Chinese peasants and the communists that lead to the masses supporting Mao's movement . This may cause you to change your original hypothesis.

Example 2 above may be changed to a new hypothesis -

"The nationalists inability to drive out the Japanese and their attacks on the communist freedom fighters helped them gain the support of the peasants and this was essential for their ultimate victory over the nationalists."

This may be later changed to a different hypothesis -

"Mao's ability to gain the support of the peasants was the most decisive factor in their 1994 communist victory."

Gather evidence to support your case. This evidence could force you to change your inquiry as discussed earlier . You should not set out to rigidly prove the first hypothesis that you thought of a few weeks ago .

The Board of Senior Secondary School Studies requires students to show evidence of the research and the inquiry process. You will need to show evidence of the basic skills and processes that you have developed since primary school.

• skimming and scanning for relevant information
• locating information to use as evidence - direct and indirect quotes, diagrams, graphs, cartoons
• making notes using a variety of summary techniques - recording the sources details
• compiling a bibliography

Many students will find something to change or modify in their hypothesis right up until the final draft is ready to be
handed in.

6. The basic essay structure:

While making notes remember that all you have to do in the essay is organise relevant evidence to support a conclusion you have reached. Keep in mind that:

• the purpose of the Introduction is to state the position you will be taking and to list the areas you will be investigating to support your conclusions;
• the purpose of the Body of the essay is to present the evidence that supports each point listed in the introduction of your essay, and to deal with any evidence to the contrary;
• in writing the Conclusion of the essay it is usual to summarise the evidence presented and to restate your argument, confident that you have now provided adequate evidence to justify your position. Good essays make a brief reference to the valuable lessons to be learnt from the topic or how the past relates to the present / future.This is your chance to place the specific topic into the "big picture" - show its relevance to the world we live in.

7. Write a first draft

8. Redraft, edit and polish your essay

This is essential. When you read over your draft after a few days you will almost certainly find that it is not as clear or coherent as you remember. What you thought you had said may not necessarily be there on the paper. After a few days, you should be sufficiently distant from that first draft to criticise your own work.

9. Submit your essay

Complete a final draft.

You must evaluate you draft in terms of bias, omissions and exaggerations. You must question the quality of your sources in terms of their reliability, relevance and representativeness. This process has the potential to set the quality of your final draft apart from others in Queensland doing the same course . It is not easy to evaluate your own work . Why not discuss it with another student . Your best friends may be brutally honest with you and could give you valuable advice. Ultimately you must decide the quality of their advice - some advice may be best ignored - but some value may come of it.
 
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2. How to say it in formal writing

Expression

Try to be direct, clear and interesting. Simple words and constructions and short sentences are often best, but variety does prevent boredom. It is important to integrate quotations into the fabric of your argument. Use appropriate conjunctions and punctuation. You should always quote accurately, but for the purpose of integrating quotations you may make minor changes (you may change a pronoun, for example) as long as you enclose all such changes in square brackets.

Avoid writing the way you talk! (e.g. I think the commies wone the war because they were the best of a pretty rotten bunch).

Written language differs from spoken language in terms of:

• vocabulary: avoid the use of slang, abbreviations, childish or heavily attitudinal words.
• logic: do not present all statements as if they are  your own opinion ('I think that....').
• sentence structure: sentences should not be long chains of clauses linked by because or and. Use full stops liberally!
• conjunctions: make use of the written language tools offered by words like 'First,...second...' 'on the other hand'.... 'In conclusion' which help the reader (& writer!) to follow the logical organisation of the material.
• substance: avoid sharing truisms or inanities with your reader (e.g. literature is really important)

Many students have difficulties in the following area, so we ask you to take special care with:

• Sentence construction. Make sure that the subject of the clause or sentence is clear, and that each sentence has a finite verb. If these terms mean nothing to you, now's your chance to find out--your tutor's there to be asked!
• Punctuation. Punctuation is used to mark off elements of meaning and designate their respective values. Be scrupulous with apostrophes.
• The use of the apostrophe. Please remember: it's = it is; its = possessive (ownership)
• Spelling. Develop the habit of consulting a good dictionary for both spellings and meanings of words; use Australian rather than American spelling. Most word processing programs have spell-checkers--use them!
• Cliches. Avoid cliches and colloquialisms - such words and phrases have been devalued.

3. What it should look like

Presentation

• It is strongly recommended that you type or word process your essay.
• Essays should be typed or printed on one side of the paper only, with a wide margin (at least 5 cm) on the left-hand side of each page for the marker's comments.
• If you must handwrite your work, you are strongly advised to write only on every SECOND line of the page, to give your marker room for comments.
• If you word process your work, make sure you print with 1.5 or 2 line spacing.
• Number the pages, and fasten them securely.
• Attach the cover sheet.

• Use inverted commas to indicate any quotations up to three lines in length.
• It should be clear from the remarks in the previous sections that essays must be your own work , that is, they must be written in your own words, presenting your own analysis and arguments. When you use a quotation, use it to reinforce your essay - not to save you from writing it! A 'scissors and paste' collection of quotations connected in a cursory fashion is not acceptable. Only use quotes if they are directly relevant and fit appropriately into your line of argument.
• All direct quotations must be accurately reproduced, that is, follow the original exactly. If quotations are short (ie, three lines or less) they can be incorporated into your text, enclosed in quotation marks. For example: The President of the Miners' Federation stated, 'The rejection of our claim for annual leave shows the employers' bias in the arbitration process'. He then called for mass pit-head meetings.
• Quotations longer than three lines should be indented (that is, have an increased margin, in the manner show here) and single spaced (the rest of the text being double spaced). Indented quotations do not need quotation marks.
• If you are quoting someone else's quotation, your footnote reference should begin with "Cited in ... " and indicate your secondary source. Do not cite as your source an original document unless you actually read that document.
• Longer quoted passages should be indicated by indenting them, without inverted commas.

How to reference quotes   -The Harvard System

The Footnoting System

A ‘superscript’ or ‘superior number’, which is a number raised above the line of the text, is placed alongside information - such as a quotation - whose source is to be acknowledged, and a ‘reference footnote’ with the same number is placed at the foot of the page (or possibly at the end of an assignment, journal article, or section of a book such as a chapter). For example, the third reference footnote in an assignment could relate to a quotation from page 61 of a book by A G L Shaw:

³A.G.L. Shaw, The Story of Australia (London: Faber, 1955), p.61.

To obtain further information on the footnoting system, including explanations of the use of Latin terms such as ibid, and op.cit., you should consult appropriate works such as some of those listed in the Annotated Bibliography at the end of this booklet. (See also Appendix C and Appendix F.)
 
 

The Harvard System

This system first became popular with writers of scientific papers, but it is now also in common use in such fields as Education, Psychology and Sociology.

Reference footnotes are dispensed with and referencing is incorporated into the main text.

 Reference to sources is made at an appropriate place in the text by station: surname(s) of author(s); year of publication; and page number(s) are always placed within brackets, but the surname(s) may be outside brackets. If there is no known author, a title must be made instead of surname(s). See Example 5 following. Note, however, that it is a common mistake to think that there is no author when a work actually has a ‘corporate author’. When there is a corporate author, its name is used in the text in the same way that an author’s surname is used. (See Example 6 following.)

Quotations and paraphrasing are often introduced in the present tense (eg ‘states that’), but the past tense (eg ‘stated that’ or ‘has stated that’) may be used. Consistency is desirable within a particular paper. Sometimes, however, the past tense is more appropriate even if the present tense has been used elsewhere in the paper. See Example 4 following. Either single or double quotation marks may be used when quoting another person’s words. Again, consistency is desirable. But if you quote words which themselves include quotation marks it is better to use the two kinds. (See Example 7 following.)

Examples^*:

 (1) Simpson (1967:27) states that ‘lack of exercise is our most serious health problem’. (Quoting from one page.)

 (2) It has been claimed that there is a great revival of interest in religion (Reid, 1976:54-55). (Paraphrasing from two pages.)

(3) Rogers and Phillips (1978) have made a strong plea for the outlawing of nuclear weapons. (Reference to arguments advanced in a whole work, so no page numbers used.)

(4) More than two decades ago Shaw (1955:272) wrote that Australian book sales per head were the highest in the world (‘wrote’ is more appropriate that ‘writes’).

(5) It is stated in Wild Life of Australia (1972:9) that ‘Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world’. (Quoting from an anonymous work.)

(6) The Australian Conservation Foundation (1970:2) claims that the ‘raging dry-season bushfire is easily the most dramatic feature of the Australian Scene’. (Quoting words of a corporate author.)

(7) Referring to an argumentative relation, Baldwin (1973:18) remarks: ‘If you said "white" to him he would almost certainly say "black".’ (Double quotation marks used within single ones.)

This referencing obviously does not by itself give the reader complete information about sources. This information can be obtained only by relating the referencing to a bibliography, which is consequently a necessary accompaniment to Harvard referencing. Compilation of bibliographies is discussed below.

To illustrate the Harvard system further, two examples from the earlier-mentioned book by A.G.L. Shaw follow. These examples illustrate the difference between the setting out of ‘short’ and ‘long’ quotations. What is ‘short’ and ‘long’ is arbitrary. The most common practice is to consider quotations of four complete lines or more as ‘long’.

A short quotation is incorporated into a sentence without disrupting the flow of the text, and quotations marks are used.

Example:

 Example:

Shaw, A.G.L. (1955). The Story of Australia. London: Faber.

The following two special problems occur occasionally when using the Harvard system:

Bibliography

1. Place the bibliography on a separate sheet at the end of the essay.

2. It should include all books and articles consulted whether actual quotations are taken from them or not.

3. Never include any book not used.

4. 'Primary' sources (eg, documents) should be listed separately from 'secondary' sources (e.g. books and articles).

5. Within these categories a strict alphabetical arrangement according to the surnames of the authors should be used.

Some examples

The method of writing a bibliography is slightly different to footnoting. Please pay careful attention to punctuation.

(i) Books

Shaw, A. G. L., Convicts and the Colonies. London: Faber, 1966.

(ii) Journal Articles

Carroll, L., 'Carnival Rites as Vehicles of Protest in Renaissance Venice', The Sixteenth Century Journal, 16 (1985), pp. 486-503.

(iii) Chapters from Books

Parrington, V. L., 'Andrew Jackson, Agrarian Liberal', in J. L. Bugg (ed). Jacksonian Democracy,Myth or Reality, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964, pp. 34-38.

(iv) Theses

Madew, A. S., Agriculture in the Hunter Valley, 1830-1850, MA thesis, University of Sydney, 196.

(v) Official Documents

New South Wales Parliamentary Debates. First series, vol. XXXI. Sydney: W. & F. Pascoe, 1892

(vi) Manuscripts

Parkes Correspondence, Mitchell Library, A907

(vii) Newspapers

Sydney Morning Herald

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4. Serious Stuff

Deadlines

Assignments must be submitted by the due date.

Extensions

Extensions will be granted only in special circumstances and at the discretion of the teacher, Head of Department or Deputy Principal  but must be obtained before the due date. Except in cases of unforeseen sickness and misadventure requests for extensions should be accompanied by documentation such as a medical certificate or a letter from your parent / guardian.

Penalties
Assignments submitted late without an approved extension will be penalised. The standard proceedure is for the assessment item to be marked as usual BUT awarded E's in all criteria for the student profile when determining exit levels of achievement.

__________________________________________________________________

Cover Sheet and Copy

Follow teacher's instructions. You will usually be expected to attach the criteria sheet, title page and contents page to the assignment.

Delivering Your Essay

YOU are responsible for handing in your assignment. Do not leave your essay on a teacher's desk. Give it to a member of staff or ask someone else to deliver it for you.

Late Essays

Remember that the penalty for lateness is likely to outweigh any additional marks gained for work done in the future.

Even if you do not receive any marks for your assignment, you must still submit it in order to complete the subject and be eligible for a result.

Prolonged Illness

If you suffer from a prolonged illness or other disability which prevents you from submitting one or more assignments, you should write as soon as possible to the Head of the Department and provide supporting documentation.

Academic Misconduct

The handing in of assignments with very similar answers to others (past or present), or of plagiarised work, will result in severe penalties.

Plagiarism is one form of academic misconduct. This consists of appropriating the words and ideas of someone else, and presenting them as your own. It is intellectual theft. It can take many forms, ranging from reproducing published material without acknowledgment and documentation, to submitting an essay written by someone else as your own work. Generally, we do know when we are indulging in some form of deceit such as this, but there may be cases when, because your own thoughts coincide closely with those of someone else, you are unsure of where you stand on the matter. In such circumstances, discuss the dilemma with a member of staff. Students should note, in any event, that plagiarism is regarded very seriously as a violation of the objectives of  all levels of education. At university you could be excluded from a course of study for plagiarism.

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Assessment

Students are required to attend lessons offered in the subject, to submit assignments and to sit for any class test and/or examination which may be prescribed as part of the assessment for a given subject.

You must attend classes regularly, and you must complete all written work (even if it is submitted to the Department too late to qualify for a mark).

Failure to fulfil any of these requirements may lead to the withholding of a student's results, and/or failure in the subject.

Equal Opportunity in Education

This school does not discriminate against students on the grounds of sex, marital status, pregnancy, race, nationality, national or ethnic origin, colour, disability or religion. Further, this school is committed to course/subject design, curriculum content, classroom environment, assessment procedures and other aspects of school life which will provide equality of educational opportunity to all students. If you feel disadvantaged in ways that you think fall within the scope of the Equal Opportunity in Education Policy, you should approach the Head of Department.

5. What do the marks mean?

Marking Criteria

Essays are used to measure ability in the selection, intepretation and evaluation of ideas. They allow a freedom of response but in general they are marked according to the following criteria:-

Knowledge and Understanding: Showing awareness of a wide range of data, from specific facts to theories about the facts. Breadth of reading, its relevance and coherence, and the understanding of key terms, facts and concepts will be looked for.

Critical Use of Sources: This requires an ability to understand the component parts of an argument and to critically examine it. You will need to evaluate the relevance of data, recognise unstated assumptions and logical fallacies in reasoning, and consider whether appropriate weighting has been given to various parts of the evidence.

Communication: Essays involve the construction of an argument which is consistent and based on a variety of sources. Apart from the usual language skills (clarity, correctness) you will be expected to write critically and according to a logical plan.

The essay itself then is a combination of these three skills. Have you answered the question logically and consistently, and supported it with adequate information?

Skills we hope our students acquire:

• 'precision of thought and language' and 'developing writing skills'
• History students should carry forward with them: the ability to work both independently and in a group to solve problems, the application of analytical modes of thinking (which incorporates critical reading of texts, interpretation of primary and secondary evidence and a reflective awareness of one's own assumptions), the ability to communicate these ideas in both written and oral form, and the use of the historical imagination.

• a) Critically read secondary literature (especially monographs and articles)
• b) Interpret a historical source (distinguish primary and secondary sources; work with primary source)
• c) Establish consistent, organized writing skills (how to plan an essay; sequencing an argument; technical referencing convenctions)
• d) Participate in oral discussions (sharing of information; how to pose an argument orally)
• e) Master elementary computer skills (use of computerized data bases)

• a) Critically read secondary literature (comprehensive histories, historiographical debates)
• b) Interpret a great range of primary and secondary sources
• c) Discuss theoretical issues behind history as a discourse (questioning of own assumptions; representational nature of history)
• d) Analyse historical problems and be aware of the contexts in which historical problems are analysed (broadening knowledge of structures, cause/effect variables)
• e) Master writing skills (good argument structure; clear expression)
• f) Master oral skills (identifying issues; debating points)
• g) Master computer skills (use of networking)
• h) Make use of historical imagination (pursue own lines of enquiry; flair in writing, use of metaphor, counterfactual questioning)

6. What to do if you fail, or are unhappy with a mark.